Early History of Flight

AIR TRANSPORTATION Early History of Flight: Around 400 BC – Flight in China †¢ The discovery of the kite that could fly in the air by the Chinese started humans thinking about flying. †¢ Kites have been important to the invention of flight as they were the forerunner to balloons and gliders. Hero and the Aeolipile †¢ The ancient Greek engineer, Hero of Alexandria, worked with air pressure and steam to create sources of power. One experiment that he developed was the aeolipile which used jets of steam to create rotary motion. 1485 The Ornithopter and the Study of Flight †¢ Leonardo da Vinci made the first real studies of flight in the 1480's.He had over 100 drawings that illustrated his theories on bird and mechanical flight. The drawings illustrated the wings and tails of birds, ideas for man carrying machines, and devices for the testing of wings. 1783-The Flight of the First Hot Air Balloon †¢ The brothers, Joseph Michel and Jacques Etienne Montgolfi er, were inventors of the first hot air balloon. †¢ They used the smoke from a fire to blow hot air into a silk bag. The silk bag was attached to a basket. The hot air then rose and allowed the balloon to be lighter-than-air. †¢ In 1783, the first passengers in the colorful balloon were a sheep, rooster and duck.It climbed to a height of about 6,000 feet and traveled more than one mile. †¢ The first manned flight was on November 21, 1783, the passengers were Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier and Francois Laurent. 1799-1850's-Gliders †¢ Sir George Cayley is considered the â€Å"FATHER OF AERODYNAMICS†.. †¢ Cayley experimented with wing design, distinguished between lift and drag, and formulated the concepts of vertical tail surfaces, steering rudders, rear elevators, and air screws. †¢ Cayley designed many different versions of gliders that used the movements of the body to control.A young boy, whose name is not known, was the first to fly one of Ca yley's gliders, the first glider capable of carrying a human. 1891 Otto Lilienthal †¢ German engineer, Otto Lilienthal, studied aerodynamics and worked to design a glider that would fly. Otto Lilienthal was the first person to design a glider that could fly a person and was able to fly long distances. 1891 Aerodrome †¢ Samuel Langley was physicist and astronomer who realized that power was needed to help man fly. †¢ He built a model of a plane, which he called an aerodrome that included a steam-powered engine.In 1891, his model flew for 3/4s of a mile before running out of fuel. †¢ It was too heavy to fly and it crashed. He was very disappointed. He gave up trying to fly. His major contributions to flight involved attempts at adding a power plant to a glider 1894 Octave Chanute †¢ Octave Chanute was a successful engineer who undertook the invention of airplanes as a hobby, after being inspired by Otto Lilienthal. †¢ Chanute designed several aircraft, th e Herring – Chanute biplane was his most successful design and formed the basis of the Wright biplane design. MAN’S FIRST SUCCESFUL FLIGHT: 903- The Wright Brothers †¢ Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright was very deliberate in their quest for flight. †¢ The Wright Brothers designed and used a wind tunnel to test the shapes of the wings and the tails of the gliders. After they found a glider shape that consistently would fly in the tests in the North Carolina Outer Banks dunes, then they turned their attention to how to create a propulsion system that would create the lift needed to fly. †¢ The â€Å"Flyer† lifted from level ground to the north of Big Kill Devil Hill, at 10:35 a. m. , on December 17, 1903.Orville piloted the plane which weighed six hundred and five pounds. †¢ The first heavier-than-air flight traveled 120 ft. in 12 seconds. The two brothers took turns during the test flights. It was Orville's turn to test the plane, so he is the brother that is credited with the first flight. †¢ In 1904, the first flight lasting more than five minutes took place on November 9. The Flyer II was flown by Wilbur Wright. †¢ In 1908, passenger flight took a turn for the worse when the first fatal air crash occurred on September 17. †¢ Orville Wright was piloting the plane.Orville Wright survived the crash, but his passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, did not. The Wright Brothers had been allowing passengers to fly with them since May 14, 1908. TYPES OF AIRPLANE ENGINES TURBOJET ENGINE †¢ The basic idea of the turbojet engine is simple. Air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to 3 to 12 times its original pressure in compressor. †¢ The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gases push hard against the front of the engine TURBOPROP ENGINE (Turbo propeller Engine) A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turb ine at the back is turned by the hot gases, and this turns a shaft that drives the propeller. †¢ Some small airliners and transport aircraft are powered by turboprops. †¢ Engines featuring such propellers are called prop fans. †¢ Hungarian, Gyorgy Jendrassik who worked for the Ganz wagon works in Budapest designed the very first working turboprop engine in 1938. Called the Cs-1, Jendrassik's engine was first tested in August of 1940; the Cs-1 was abandoned in 1941 without going into production due to the War. Max Mueller designed the first turboprop engine that went into production in 1942. TURBOFAN RNGINE †¢ A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. †¢ Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans. In a turbojet all the air entering the intake passes through the gas generator, which is composed of the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. TURBO SHAFT ENGINE †¢ It does not drive a propeller. Instead, it provides pow er for a helicopter rotor. †¢ The turbo shaft engine is designed so that the speed of the helicopter rotor is independent of the rotating speed of the gas generator.RAMJET ENGINE †¢ The speed of the jet â€Å"rams† or forces air into the engine. It is essentially a turbojet in which rotating machinery has been omitted. †¢ A ramjet vehicle requires some form of assisted takeoff, such as another aircraft. It has been used primarily in guided-missile systems. Space vehicles use this type of jet. PARTS OF AN AIRPLANE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 1. Fuselage- The body of the plane. It is generally a long tube shape 2. Landing gear- The wheels of a plane. ?    – There are two main wheels on either side of the plane fuselage.Then there is one more wheel near the front of the plane. The brakes for the wheels are like the brakes for cars. They are operated by pedals, one for each wheel. Most landing gear can be folded into the fuselage during the flight and opened for l anding. 3. Wings- The wings are shaped with smooth surfaces. There is a curve to the wings which helps push the air over the top more quickly than it goes under the wing. ?      Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The shape of the wings determines how fast and high the plane can fly. ?      Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Wings are called airfoils. 4.Flaps- slide back and down to increase the surface of the wing area. -They also tilt down to increase the curve of the wing. 5. Slats- move out from the front of the wings to make the wing space larger. This helps to increase the lifting force of the wing at slower speeds like takeoff and landing. 6. Ailerons- are hinged on the wings and move downward to push the air down and make the wing tilt up. This moves the plane to the side and helps it turn during flight. 7. Spoilers- after landing, the spoilers are used like air brakes to reduce any remaining lift and slow down the airplane.REGIMES OF FLIGHT †¢ Ranges of speed defined relative to the local speed of sound. 1. SUBSO NIC †¢ this category contains most of the commercial jets that are used today to move passengers and cargo. †¢ the speed is just below the speed of sound as 350-750 miles per hour. †¢ engines today are lighter and more powerful and can travel quickly with large loads of people and goods. 2. SUPERSONIC †¢ 760 MPH is the speed of sound. †¢ These planes can fly up to 5 times   the speed of sound. Planes in this regime have specially designed high performance engines. They are also designed in lightweight materials to provide less drag. †¢ The first powered aircraft to explore this regime was the Bell X-1A, in 1947. †¢ The wings of supersonic fighters are swept in planform to reduce drag. †¢ President Kennedy- in 1963 he proposed the supersonic plane as a national priority. †¢ UNITED STATES- gave up its first attempts to produce a supersonic transport (SST) for commercial used after spending 1 billion dollars in development. †¢ TU-144- supersonic version of Russian but it has been plagued with economic and safety problems. †¢ CONCORDE- British/French version of SST has a cruising speed of 1,458 miles per hour at an altitude of 50,000-60,000 feet, which takes it out of the more heavily traveled subsonic jets levels of 30,000-40,000 feet. -it needs speeds of200-215 knots to take off, as compared with 165 knots for subsonic. Supersonic Transport problems: †¢ it seats only 105 passengers. †¢ fuel consumption is 2-3 times that of a subsonic. †¢ The range is less that 4,000 miles. Advantages of Concorde: †¢ 80% are business travelers †¢ cabin is pressurized to 5,000 feet instead of to about 7,000 feet as in subsonic jets. †¢ air conditioning balances the humidity, which makes colds. Even though the SST has proved economically unfeasible mostly because of its small pay load. ? Air travel changes will probably call for an improved version, one of that can carry at least 250 passengers a nd have a 7500 mile range. ? That kind of plane would be a boon for pacific basin travel, where current flight times are nine to thirteen hours. 3. HYPERSONIC †¢ 3500-7000 MPH speed of sound. †¢ Rockets travel at speeds 5 to 10 times the speed of sound as they go into orbit. †¢ In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above.The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. †¢ Large variations in air density and pressure occur because of shock waves, and expansions 4. TRANSONIC †¢ Transonic is an aeronautics term referring to a range of velocities just below and above the speed of sound (about mach 0. 8–1. 2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number. †¢ Most modern jet powered aircraft spend a considerable amount of time in the transonic state. This is particularly important due to an effect known as wave drag, which is prevalent in these speed range s. Severe instability can occur at transonic speeds. Shock waves move through the air at the speed of sound. THE NEWEST PLANES †¢ Boeing 747-400- the newest of the long range jets. ?   >can carry 410 passengers and has a range 0f 8,800 miles †¢ MD-11 -McDonnell Douglas newest jets. ? > MD-11 can carry 405 passengers. ? -Both planes are being built to test the traveler’s capacity to sit in one seat for a                                     marathon 16plus hours, extending over 7,000 to 8,000 miles. 1987- Europe and its Airbus Industry had put about 15 billion on the line to produce a: JUNIOR JUMBO -the airbus A-340,   -a 275-seater with a range about 8,000 miles? -greater flight frequencies because of faster loading and deplaning of passengers. Aircraft Footprint- is the distance from the takeoff point to the point   at which the plane is no longer significantly audible. N. V Fokker- a smaller aircraft contender. ?-are fuel-efficient and require small cockpit crews. FREEDOMS OF THE AIR First Freedom of the Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State or States to fly across its territory without landing (also known as a First Freedom Right).Second Freedom of the Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State or States to land in its territory for non-traffic purposes (also known as a Second Freedom Right). Third Freedom of The Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State to put down, in the territory of the first State, traffic coming from the home State of the carrier (also known as a Third Freedom Right).Fourth Freedom of The Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State to take on, in the terr itory of the first State, traffic destined for the home State of the carrier (also known as a Fourth Freedom Right). Fifth Freedom of The Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State to put down and to take on, in the territory of the first State, traffic coming from or destined to a third State (also known as a Fifth Freedom Right).ICAO characterizes all â€Å"freedoms† beyond the Fifth as â€Å"so-called† because only the first five â€Å"freedoms† have been officially recognized as such by international treaty. Sixth Freedom of The Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, of transporting, via the home State of the carrier, traffic moving between two other States (also known as a Sixth Freedom Right). The so-called Sixth Freedom of the Air, unlike the first five freedoms, is not incorporated as such into any widely recognized air se rvice agreements such as the â€Å"Five Freedoms Agreement†.Seventh Freedom of The Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, granted by one State to another State, of transporting traffic between the territory of the granting State and any third State with no requirement to include on such operation any point in the territory of the recipient State, i. e the service need not connect to or be an extension of any service to/from the home State of the carrier.Eighth Freedom of The Air – the right or privilege, in respect of scheduled international air services, of transporting cabotage traffic between two points in the territory of the granting State on a service which originates or terminates in the home country of the foreign carrier or (in connection with the so-called Seventh Freedom of the Air) outside the territory of the granting State (also known as a Eighth Freedom Right or â€Å"consecutive cabotage†).Ninth F reedom of The Air – the right or privilege of transporting cabotage traffic of the granting State on a service performed entirely within the territory of the granting State (also known as a Ninth Freedom Right or â€Å"stand alone† cabotage). GOVERNMENT AGENCIES †¢ INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION (IATA) o Is an international industry trade group of airlines headquartered in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. o IATA was formed IATA was formed in April 1945, in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, founded in The Hague in 1919, the year of the world's first international scheduled services.Functions: ? To the member airlines- it provides solutions to problems beyond the resources of any single airline. ? To the government- it is the medium of negotiation for international fares and agreements. ? To the traveling public- it ensures the traveling public safe and efficient operations of all the airlines, proper business practice by the airlines and travel agents. ? Clears financial balance between airlines and charges between tickets. ? Caters ground holding ? Performs maintenance service ? Handles aircraft leasing projects ? Promotes worldwide air travel safety Regulate the shipping of dangerous goods INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO) ? An agency of the United Nations, codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth. Its headquarters are located in the Quartier International of Montreal, Canada. Functions: ? Adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation. ? Prevention of unlawful interference ? Facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation. Defines the protocols for air accident investigation followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, commonl y known as the Chicago Convention CIVIL AERONAUTICS BOARD (CAB) ? Agency charged with the power to regulate the economic aspect of air transportation in the Philippines. Functions: ? Licensing of domestic and international airlines. ? Regulation of fares and rates for the carriage of person s and property. ? Enforcement of the economic provision of R. A. 776. ? Authorization of navigation of foreign aircraft in the Philippines. Participation in the negotiation of air agreements covering exchange of air rights. ? Suggest corrective to improve safety in air commerce. ? Assure protection of the public by requiring the performance of safe and adequate air service, eliminating rate discrimination, unfair competition and deceptive practices in air transportation. Air Transportation Office (ATO) ? The Philippines' Air Transportation Office (Filipino: Tanggapan ng Transportasyong Himpapawid), abbreviated as ATO, is responsible for implementing policies on civil aviation to assure safe, econ omic and efficient air travel.FUNCTIONS: ? Establish and prescribe rules and regulations for the inspection and registration of all aircraft owned and operated in the Philippines and all air facilities; ? Establish and prescribe the corresponding rules and regulations for the enforcement of ? Determine, fix and/or prescribe charges and/or rates pertinent to the operation of public air utility facilities and services; ? Administer and operate the Civil Aviation Training Center (CATC); ? Operate and maintain national airports, air navigation and other similar facilities in compliance to ICAO; ?Perform such other powers and functions as may be prescribed by law. PHILIPPINE AEROSPACE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (PADC) ? The corporation undertakes business and development activities for the establishment of reliable aviation and aerospace industry. ? It engages in design, manufacture and scale of all forms of aircrafts. ? It develops local capabilities in maintenance, repair and modification of equipment related to air flight. ? It operates on air transport service for domestic and international flights. ? Head: Reynato R. Jose FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) It concentrates on passenger safety, aircraft certification to meet safety standards, pilot licensing and air traffic control. ? Also responsible for investigation of aircraft accident. ? 1958- FAA became independent MANILA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT AUTHORITY (MIAA) ? This government agency is in charge of operating and maintaining airport facilities in the Mactan International Airport. ? As with MIAA, MCIAA is responsible for keeping Mactan airport in tip-toe shape to ensure its competitiveness as a trade and tourist gateway to Visayas Island group. It implements airport rules, provides airport safety and security needs. ? Under operations are international and domestic operations and maintenance, fire fighting and rescue and electrical and mechanical services. ? Head: Gen. Mgr. Alfonso U. Alerre INTERNATIONAL AIR CHARTER ASSOCIATION (IACA) ? Trade association of supplemental and charter airlines. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) ? The role of NASA is aeronautical research. ? They achieve world leadership in space technology and exploration. LOCAL TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM LIST OF AIRLINES IN THE PHILIPPINESPHILIPPINE AIRLINES ? It is the national airline of the Philippines. ? The first airline in Asia and the oldest of those currently in operation. ? Makati City: headquarters ? Flies both domestic and international ? Ninoy Aquino International Airport, Paranaque City: main hub. ? China Airlines and Japan Airlines: principal Asian competitors. ? IATA: PR HISTORY: ? February 1941: established ? Started by a group of businessmen led by Andres Soriano. ? March 1941: started its operation with a single Beech Model 18 aircraft making one flight daily between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio. In July 1941, a chartered DC-4 ferried carried 40 American servicemen to Californ ia, making Pal the first airline to cross the Pacific. ? December 1941, started regular service between Manila and San Francisco.? INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS: ? Pal has 21 crash records ? Last one being in 1999 and most of them being in its earlier years. ? Philippine Airlines Flight 812 was a scheduled passenger flight from Francisco Bangoy International Airport in Davao City to Ninoy Aquino International Airport near Manila.On May 25, 2000, an Airbus A330-301 operating on the route was hijacked by a man later identified as Reginald Chua, just before the airplane was about to land. The flight carried 278 passengers and 13 crew members. AIR PHILIPPINES ? It is an airline registered in the Philippines. ? Primarily focuses on the domestic low-cost market. ? IATA: 2P ? ICAO: GAP ? Call sign: Orient Pacific History: ? February 13, 1995: was incorporated. ? Subic: base operations. ? February 1, 1996: started its flight operations with a Boeing737-200 between Subic, Iloilo and Zamboanga.ASIA N SPIRIT ? An airline based in the Philippines that usually flies routes not serviced by major airlines such as Philippine Airlines. ? The Philippines’ youngest airline. ? Based in Manila. ? Founded in 1996 by the Airline Employees Cooperative. ? IATA: 6K ? ICAO: RIT ? Call sign: Asian Spirit CEBU PACIFIC ? One of the newest airline companies operating in the Philippines. ? The country's 2nd largest airline after Philippine Airlines ? Cebu: headquarters ? March 8, 1996: first flight ? Started with 24 flights daily among Manila, Cebu and Davao. By 2000’s, was able to operate international flights to the countries of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, South Korea and the dependency of Guam. ? IATA: 5J ? ICAO: CEB ? Call sign: Cebu Air PACIFIC EAST ASIA CARGO LINES ? Is a cargo airline based in the Philippines ? IATA: Q8 ? ICAO: PEC PACIFICAIR ? Pacificair ( Pacific Airways Corporation ) is an airline based in Manila, Philippines. ? Established: 1947 ? Operates sch eduled passenger flights, air taxi services, and is involved in agricultural work. ? IATA: GX ? ICAO: PFR ? Call sign: Pacific West

Zoe’s Tale PART II Chapter Fifteen

The next several months were very tiring. Early mornings: physical conditioning. â€Å"You are soft,† Hickory said to me and Gretchen the first day. â€Å"Despicable lies,† I said. â€Å"Very well,† Hickory said, and pointed to the tree line of the forest, at least a klick away. â€Å"Please run to the forest as quickly as you can. Then run back. Do not stop until you return.† We ran. By the time I got back, it felt like my lungs were trying to force themselves up my trachea, the better to smack me around for abusing them. Both Gretchen and I collapsed into the grass gasping. â€Å"You are soft,† Hickory repeated. I didn't argue, and not just because at the moment I was totally incapable of speaking. â€Å"We are done for today. Tomorrow we will truly begin with your physical conditioning. We will start slowly.† It and Dickory walked away, leaving Gretchen and me to imagine ways we were going to murder Hickory and Dickory, once we could actually force oxygen back into our bodies. Mornings: school, like every other kid and teen not actively working in a field. Limited books and supplies meant sharing with others. I shared my textbooks with Gretchen, Enzo, and Magdy. This worked fine when we were all speaking to each other, less so when some of us were not. â€Å"Will you two please focus?† Magdy said, waving his hands in front of the two of us. We were supposed to be doing calculus. â€Å"Stop it,† Gretchen said. She had her head down on our table. It had been a hard workout that morning. â€Å"God, I miss coffee,† she said, looking up at me. â€Å"It would be nice to get to this problem sometime today,† Magdy said. â€Å"Oh, what do you care,† Gretchen said. â€Å"It's not like any of us are going to college anyway.† â€Å"We still have to do it,† Enzo said. â€Å"You do it, then,† Gretchen said. She leaned over and pushed the book toward the two of them. â€Å"It's not me or Zoe who has to learn this stuff. We already know it. You two are always waiting for us to do the work, and then just nodding like you actually know what we're doing.† â€Å"That's not true,† Magdy said. â€Å"Really? Fine,† Gretchen said. â€Å"Prove it. Impress me.† â€Å"I think someone's morning exertions are making her a little grumpy,† Magdy said, mockingly. â€Å"What's that supposed to mean?† I said. â€Å"It means that since the two of you started whatever it is you're doing, you've been pretty useless here,† Magdy said. â€Å"Despite what Gretchen the Grump is hinting at, it's the two of us who have been carrying the two of you lately, and you know it.† â€Å"You're carrying us in math?† Gretchen said. â€Å"I don't think so.† â€Å"Everything else, sweetness,† Magdy said. â€Å"Unless you think Enzo pulling together that report on the early Colonial Union days last week doesn't count.† â€Å"That's not ‘we,' that's Enzo,† Gretchen said. â€Å"And thank you, Enzo. Happy, Magdy? Good. Now let's all shut up about this.† Gretchen put her head back down on the table. Enzo and Magdy looked at each other. â€Å"Here, give me the book,† I said, reaching for it. â€Å"I'll do this problem.† Enzo slid the book over to me, not quite meeting my gaze. Afternoons: training. â€Å"So, how is the training going?† Enzo asked me one early evening, catching me as I limped home from the day's workout. â€Å"Do you mean, can I kill you yet?† I asked. â€Å"Well, no,† Enzo said. â€Å"Although now that you mention it I'm curious. Can you?† â€Å"It depends,† I said, â€Å"on what it is you're asking me to kill you with.† There was an uncomfortable silence after that. â€Å"That was a joke,† I said. â€Å"Are you sure?† Enzo said. â€Å"We didn't even get around to how to kill things today,† I said, changing the subject. â€Å"We spent the day learning how to move quietly. You know. To avoid capture.† â€Å"Or to sneak up on something,† Enzo said. I sighed. â€Å"Yes, okay, Enzo. To sneak up on things. To kill them. Because I like to kill. Kill and kill again, that's me. Little Zoe Stab Stab.† I sped up my walking speed. Enzo caught up with me. â€Å"Sorry,† he said. â€Å"That wasn't fair of me.† â€Å"Really,† I said. â€Å"It's just a topic of conversation, you know,† Enzo said. â€Å"What you and Gretchen are doing.† I stopped walking. â€Å"What kind of conversation?† I asked. â€Å"Well, think about it,† Enzo said. â€Å"You and Gretchen are spending your afternoons preparing for the apocalypse. What do you think people are talking about?† â€Å"It's not like that,† I said. â€Å"I know,† Enzo said, reaching out and touching my arm, which reminded me we spent less time touching each other lately. â€Å"I've told people that, too. Doesn't keep people from talking, though. That and the fact that it's you and Gretchen.† â€Å"So?† I said. â€Å"You're the daughter of the colony leaders, she's the daughter of the guy everyone knows is next in line on the colony council,† Enzo said. â€Å"It looks like you're getting special treatment. If it was just you, people would get it. People know you've got that weird thing you have with the Obin – â€Å" â€Å"It's not weird,† I said. Enzo looked at me blankly. â€Å"Yeah, okay,† I said. â€Å"People know you've got that thing with the Obin, so they wouldn't think about it if it was just you,† Enzo said. â€Å"But the two of you is making people nervous. People wonder if you guys know something we don't.† â€Å"That's ridiculous,† I said. â€Å"Gretchen is my best friend. That's why I asked her. Should I have asked someone else?† â€Å"You could have,† Enzo said. â€Å"Like who?† I said. â€Å"Like me,† Enzo said. â€Å"You know, your boyfriend.† â€Å"Yeah, because people wouldn't talk about that,† I said. â€Å"Maybe they would and maybe they wouldn't,† Enzo said. â€Å"But at least I'd get to see you every once in a while.† I didn't have any good answer to that. So I just gave Enzo a kiss. â€Å"Look, I'm not trying to make you feel bad or guilty or whatever,† Enzo said, when I was done. â€Å"But I would like to see more of you.† â€Å"That statement can be interpreted in many different ways,† I said. â€Å"Let's start with the innocent ones,† Enzo said. â€Å"But we can go from there if you want.† â€Å"And anyway, you see me every day,† rewinding the conversation just a little. â€Å"And we always spend time together at the hootenannies.† â€Å"I don't count doing schoolwork together as time together,† Enzo said. â€Å"And as much fun as it is to admire how you trained Hickory to imitate a sitar solo – â€Å" â€Å"That's Dickory,† I said. â€Å"Hickory does the drum sounds.† Enzo gently put a finger to my lips. â€Å"As much fun as it is,† he repeated. â€Å"I'd rather have some time for just you and me.† He kissed me, which was pretty effective punctuation. â€Å"How about now?† I said, after the kiss. â€Å"Can't,† Enzo said. â€Å"On my way home to babysit Maria and Katherina so my parents can have dinner with friends.† â€Å"Waaah,† I said. â€Å"Kiss me, tell me you want to spend time together, leave me hanging. Nice.† â€Å"But I have tomorrow afternoon free,† Enzo said. â€Å"Maybe then. After you're done with your stabbing practice.† â€Å"We already did stabbing,† I said. â€Å"Now we're on to strangulation.† Silence. â€Å"Joke,† I said. â€Å"I only have your word for that,† Enzo said. â€Å"Cute.† I kissed him again. â€Å"See you tomorrow.† The next day training went long. I skipped dinner to head to Enzo's parents' homestead. His mother said he'd waited around, and then headed over to Magdy's. We didn't talk to each other much the next day during school. Evenings: study. â€Å"We have reached an agreement with Jerry Bennett to allow you to use the information center in the evenings twice a week,† Hickory said. I suddenly felt sorry for Jerry Bennett, who I had heard was more than a little terrified of Hickory and Dickory, and probably would have agreed to anything they asked just so long as they left him alone. I made a mental note to invite Bennett to the next hootenanny. There's nothing to make an Obin look less threatening than to see one in front of a crowd, bobbing its neck back and forth and making like a tabla drum. Hickory continued. â€Å"While you are there, you will study the Colonial Union files of other sentient species.† â€Å"Why do you want us to learn about them?† Gretchen asked. â€Å"To know how to fight them,† Hickory said. â€Å"And how to kill them.† â€Å"There are hundreds of species in the Conclave,† I said. â€Å"Are we supposed to learn about each of them? That's going to take more than two nights a week.† â€Å"We will be focusing on species who are not members of the Conclave,† Hickory said. Gretchen and I looked at each other. â€Å"But they're not the ones planning to kill us,† Gretchen said. â€Å"There are many trying to kill you,† Hickory said. â€Å"And some may be more motivated than others. For example, the Rraey. They recently lost a war with the Enesha, who took control of most of their colonies before they were themselves defeated by the Obin. The Rraey are no longer a direct threat to any established race or colony. But if they were to find you here, there is no doubt what they would do.† I shuddered. Gretchen noticed. â€Å"You okay?† she asked. â€Å"I'm fine,† I said, too quickly. â€Å"I've met the Rraey before.† Gretchen looked at me strangely but didn't say anything after that. â€Å"We have a list for you,† Hickory said. â€Å"Jerry Bennett has already prepared the files you have access to for each species. Take special note of the physiology of each race. This will be important in our instruction.† â€Å"To learn how to fight them,† I said. â€Å"Yes,† Hickory said. â€Å"And to learn how to kill them.† Three weeks into our studies I pulled up a race who were not on our list. â€Å"Wow, they're scary-looking,† Gretchen said, looking over my shoulder after she noticed I had been reading for a while. â€Å"They're Consu,† I said. â€Å"They're scary, period.† I handed my PDA over to Gretchen. â€Å"They're the most advanced race we know about. They make us look like we're banging rocks together. And they're the ones who made the Obin what they are today.† â€Å"Genetically engineered them?† Gretchen asked. I nodded. â€Å"Well, maybe next time they can code for personality. What are you looking at them for?† â€Å"I'm just curious,† I said. â€Å"Hickory and Dickory have talked to me about them before. They're the closet thing the Obin have to a higher power.† â€Å"Their gods,† Gretchen said. I shrugged. â€Å"More like a kid with an ant farm,† I said. â€Å"An ant farm and a magnifying glass.† â€Å"Sounds lovely,† Gretchen said, and handed back the PDA. â€Å"Hope I never get to meet them. Unless they're on my side.† â€Å"They're not on a side,† I said. â€Å"They're above.† â€Å"Above is a side,† Gretchen said. â€Å"Not our side,† I said, and switched the PDA back to what I was supposed to be reading. Late evening: everything else. â€Å"Well, this is a surprise,† I said to Enzo, who was sitting on my doorstep as I came back from another thrilling night at the information center. â€Å"I haven't seen you too much recently.† â€Å"You haven't seen much of anybody recently,† Enzo said, standing up to greet me. â€Å"It's just you and Gretchen. And you've been avoiding me since we broke up the study group.† â€Å"I'm not avoiding you,† I said. â€Å"You haven't been going out of your way to look for me,† Enzo said. Well, he had me there. â€Å"I don't blame you for it,† I said, changing the subject a little. â€Å"It's not your fault Magdy threw that fit of his.† After several weeks of increased sniping, things between Magdy and Gretchen finally reached toxic levels; the two of them had a shouting match in class and Magdy ended up saying some fairly not forgivable things and then stomping off, Enzo trailing behind. And that was the end of our little band. â€Å"Yeah, it's all Magdy's fault,† Enzo said. â€Å"Gretchen's poking at him until he snapped didn't have anything to do with it at all.† Already this conversation had gone twice to places I didn't want it to go, and the rational part of my brain was just telling me to let it go and change the subject. But then there was the not quite rational part, which was suddenly getting really annoyed. â€Å"So are you hanging out on my doorstep just to dump on my best friend, or is there some other reason you dropped by?† Enzo opened his mouth to say something, and then just shook his head. â€Å"Forget it,† he said, and started to walk off. I blocked his path. â€Å"No,† I said. â€Å"You came here for a reason. Tell me what it is.† â€Å"Why don't I see you anymore?† Enzo said. â€Å"Is that what you came here to ask me?† I said. â€Å"No,† Enzo said. â€Å"It's not what I came here to say. But it's what I'm asking you now. It's been two weeks since Magdy and Gretchen did their thing, Zoe. It was between the two of them, but I've hardly seen you since then. If you're not actually avoiding me, you're faking it really well.† â€Å"If it was between Gretchen and Magdy, why did you leave when he did?† I said. â€Å"He's my friend,† Enzo said. â€Å"Someone had to calm him down. You know how he gets. You know I'm his heat sink. What kind of question is that?† â€Å"I'm just saying it's not just between Magdy and Gretchen,† I said. â€Å"It's between all of us. You and me and Gretchen and Magdy. When was the last time you did anything without Magdy?† â€Å"I don't remember him being there when we spend time together,† Enzo said. â€Å"You know what I mean,† I said. â€Å"You're always following him, keeping him from getting hit by someone or breaking his neck or doing something stupid.† â€Å"I'm not his puppy,† Enzo said, and for that minute he actually got a little angry. Which was new. I ignored it. â€Å"You're his friend,† I said. â€Å"His best friend. And Gretchen is mine. And right now our best friends can't stand the sight of each other. And that leaks into us, Enzo. Let me ask you, right now, how do you feel about Gretchen? You don't like her very much, do you?† â€Å"We've had better days,† Enzo said. â€Å"Right. Because she and your best friend are at it. I feel the same way about Magdy. I guarantee you he feels the same way about me. And Gretchen isn't feeling very friendly to you. I want to spend time with you, Enzo, but most of the time, both of us are a package deal. We come with our best friends attached. And I don't want the drama right now.† â€Å"Because it's easier just not to bother,† Enzo said. â€Å"Because I'm tired, Enzo,† I said, spitting out the words. â€Å"Okay? I'm tired. Every morning I wake up and I have to run or do strength exercises or something that tires me out right after I've gotten out of bed. I'm tired before the rest of you are even awake. Then school. Then an entire afternoon of getting physically beat up in order to learn how to defend myself, on the chance some aliens want to come down here and kill us all. Then I spend my evenings reading up on every single race out there, not because it's interesting, but just in case I need to murder one of them, I'll know where its soft spots are. I hardly have time to think about anything else, Enzo. I am tired. â€Å"Do you think all of this is fun for me? Do you think it's fun for me not to see you? To spend all my time learning to hurt and kill things? Do you think it's fun for me that every single day I get my nose rubbed in the fact there's a whole universe out there just waiting to murder us? When was the last time you thought about it? When was the last time Magdy thought about it? I think about it every day, Enzo. My time is spent doing nothing but. So don't tell me that it's just easier for me not to bother with the drama. You have no idea. I'm sorry. But you don't.† Enzo stared at me for a minute, and then reached over to wipe my cheeks. â€Å"You could tell me, you know,† he said. I laughed a small laugh. â€Å"I don't have time,† I said. That got a smile from Enzo. â€Å"And anyway, I don't want you to worry.† â€Å"It's a little late for that,† Enzo said. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I said. â€Å"It's all right,† he said. â€Å"I miss it, you know,† I said, wiping my own face. â€Å"Spending time with you. Even when it meant spending time with Magdy. I miss having the time to really talk to you. I miss watching you fail at dodgeball. I miss you sending me poems. I miss all of it. I'm sorry that we've gotten mad at each other lately, and that we didn't do something to fix it. I'm sorry and I miss you, Enzo.† â€Å"Thank you,† Enzo said. â€Å"You're welcome,† I said. We stood there for a minute, looking at each other. â€Å"You came here to break up with me, didn't you,† I said, finally. â€Å"Yeah,† said Enzo. â€Å"Yeah, I did. Sorry.† â€Å"Don't be,† I said. â€Å"I haven't been a very good girlfriend.† â€Å"Yes you have,† Enzo said. â€Å"When you've had the time.† Another shaky laugh from me. â€Å"Well, that's the problem, isn't it,† I said. â€Å"Yes,† Enzo said, and I know he was sorry he felt he had to say it. And just like that my first relationship was over, and I went to bed, and I didn't sleep. And then I got up when the sun came up and walked out to our exercise area, and started everything again. Exercise. School. Training. Study. A very tiring time. And this is how my days went, most days, for months, until we had been at Roanoke for almost an entire year. And then things started happening. Fast.

Change of NOKIA

Organizational change management is to manage the impact of the work of the new business processes, changes in organizational structure or changes in the companys culture. In short, it is to handle the people side of the change management. (Margaret Rouse,2009) Organizational change is a structured approach of an organization to make sure that the changes seamless and successfully implemented to reach a prolonged benefits. With the business environment dramatically changed so much, the set organization must learn to be at ease with changes as well. Hence this capacity to managing and adapting to changes in the organization is significant capabilities needed in todays workplace. Examples of such changes is the mission; a) Strategic change b) Operational changes (including changes in structure) c) Technological change c) Changing attitudes and behaviors member d) Personality Changes Wide Such as changes in the above, one of the organizations that do the above changes are Nokia Corporation. When Eloc entering Nokia in 2010, he has made changes in the Nokia.strategic. In June 30, 2012 the Nokia Leadership Team was changes. 1.2 Introduction of Nokia Corporation Nokia Corporation is the largest telecommunications equipment manufacturer in the world and is the largest company in Finland. The center is located on Airport officials Espoo, Finland, and the Companies is best known through his mobile phone products. The company known for producing mobile phones to protocol and all major marketplace . In 1967, Nokia Corporation formed after the merger of three companies, namely Finland Works Co., Ltd., the forest industry by mining engineer Fredrik Idestam and Finnish Cable Works. Nokia is well known in the mobile  communications industry, enabling business travel industry through different from the normal. Name of Nokia still known by entire world however now Nokia is going through a tough time as they have to compete with many rivals suddenly appear and offer customers a smartphone that certainly interesting. Nokia also need to faced with their external and internal factors of crisis. To handle problems and crisis that happens, Nokia has done a lot of changes in management 2.1a)The changes implemented 2.1.1 Five businesses. Business in rubber, electronics, power, cable and forestry is was five of business in 1967 when the owner of each business unite with each other. Unity between the five business has formed Nokia Corporation. During the entire the 1990s, the latex, cable and consumer electronics parts progressively sold as Nokia continue discharging from all non-telecommunications businesses. In 1992, Nokias CEO has made a big difference when no longer produce products that have been done instead decided to just make the telecommunications business. when nokia focuses on investing early in telecommunications and GSM technology in 1998, it automatically lead to the company becoming company mobile phone manufacturer in the world. 2.1.2 New boss new strategy Time passes too fast and the technology is changing. when technological change, competitors such as apple, samsung appear and offer products based smartphones, Nokia realized that the mobile phone market has fallen sharply. Customers prefer to buy a smart phone than a mobile phone. in 2010 Elop joined Nokia and started a new strategic review for nokia corporation. When first joining Nokia, he realized there were some in the culture of the corporation. Elop joined Nokia in 2010 and began a strategic review. When he join Nokia there is some culture he can see in that corporate culture. Some of the culture; A domestic Finnish cultural, protected outside Managers who work only for their career No effort for future development Do not focus on the change in the product from competitors The new boss needs to make a change and difference for Nokia corporation. In 2011, he has been a partner of Microsoft. He also left Nokias Symbian operating. The partnership is his new strategy. (Tom White , 2011) 2.1.3 New strategy nokia strategy is for the manufacture of mobile phones that can be felt by everyone. Nokia has prepared a new plan that is able to execute strategic. 1. Strengthen investment in Lumia smartphone products that cause the products more attractive and available for users. 2. invest in services, by location of it for the differentiation for Nokia products and extend their platform by location for new industry 3. Further enhance competitiveness and business functions phone Nokia has changed the management team to achieve the new strategy and to strengthen the companys leadership with more firmer. Nokia have tried to increase the operating of model by redusing the Equipment service expenditure, reduse the workers number in the company in order to achieve that plan. Nokia wish to return to sustainable non-operating profit in Tool Service IFRS as early as possible. a)Targeted investment Nokia has provided a plan for the smart device to extend the range of Lumia and prices continue to be able to distinguish between windows phone , new technology , new materials and location services . of the strategy , to strengthen the image of Nokia , one of the planned purchase has been made as of 1 billion devices imaging technology . A location platform Nokia will become a key port of Nokia. Nokia has invested able to differentiate the Lumia smartphone portfolio by bringing location based services including navigator and visual equipment Browse app.  The company also has plans to expand its mapping tech for various industries for enhance platforms and build new revenue streams Nokia has tried for raise the profitability and competitiveness for mobile phone products, to achieve this purpose Nokia has aims to increase its product serial device. nokia has also invested heavily in search engine of Nokia iainya to make nokia smartphone become so easy and great in the world. . Preliminary results of this innovation can be found in the latest Nokia Asha feature phone offering a full touch screen at a lower price. (Nokia Press Release, 2012) b) Updated cost reduction target and Operational changes Offset investment priorities, the company plans to restructure the company to make extra reducers in Devices Service. Nokia is planning to proceed various designed measures include: i. -Decrease in specific R D projects, resulting in designed the closing facilities in Ulm, Germany and Burnaby, Canada Consolidation specific manufacturing operating, resulting in designed the closing its factory in Salo, Finland. study and development venture Salo Spotlight of marketing and sales activities, include key market top priority; Streamlining IT, corporate support functions Decrease associated with non-core assets, include probably disposition. As planned changes were made, Nokia is planning to remove up to 10,000 positions gradually until the end of year 2013. Nokia is start the process of involved with representing the employees consistent to the legal requirements of a particular country. With regard to designed measures the company now aims to reduce Devices Service non-IFRS operating expenses for annual term rate of approximately EUR 3.0 billion by the end of 2013. This is an update to Nokias target for reduce Devices Service non-IFRS operating expenses by more than EUR 1.0 billion for the full year 2013 compared to full year 2010 Devices Service non-IFRS operating expenditure EUR 5.35 billion. This means that in addition to the already achieved annual run rate savings of approximately EUR 700  million at the end of the first quarter of 2012, the company targets to implement approximately EUR 1.6 billion than extra cost reductions by the end of 2013. As part of designed changes, Nokia will closely assess future assets of specific non-core. Consistent with this, Nokia announced plans to sell Vertu, a luxury mobile phone business for EQT VI, a European private equity firm. (Nokia Press Release, 2012 ) c)Renewed leadership team Nokia also announced a number of changes to its senior leadership. Nokia announced that they have been appointed effective July 1, 2012: a) Juha Putkiranta as executive vice president of Operations b) Timo Toikkanen as executive vice president of Mobile Phones c) Chris Weber as executive vice president of Sales and Marketing d) Tuula Rytila as senior vice president of Marketing and Chief Marketing Officer e) Susan Sheehan as senior vice president of Communications. f) Putkiranta, Toikkanen and Weber will join the Nokia Leadership Team Steps down from Nokia leadership team effective June 30, 2012 a) Jerri DeVard steps down as chief marketing officer; b) Mary McDowell steps down as executive vice president of Mobile Phones; c) and Niklas Savander steps down as executive vice president of Markets. d) DeVard, McDowell and Savander will all continue in advisory roles through the transition of their roles; however, they step down from the Nokia Leadership Team (Nokia Press Release, 2012 ) 3.1.b) the problem faced when do the changed. 3.1.1 Five businesses financial trouble During the CEO Kari Kairamo held, Nokia has expanded into new areas. Problems faced in the 1980s was in serious financial trouble. The main reason is because of the loss occurred and the television manufacturing business in too many may cause problems in management. 3.1.2 New boss new strategy sales reduce When elop be a new boss in nokia has caused many workers laid off. Mr. Elop has cut tens of thousands of jobs since joining the company in 2010, including half of the positions in the phone business. He has also been pared, cut manufacturing program of research and development and sale of assets, including patents and company headquarters. (Sven Grundberg, 2013) When Elop announced Nokias new strategy which is to work with Microsoft and leave Nokias Symbian operating, has resulted the sales completely clearly was have be decrease. when the merger between Nokia and Microsoft told, telephone sales year of 2011 is more than the second sales. sales in the second quarter fell to 25%. 3.1.3 New strategy a)Targeted investment To implement targeted investments, Nokia has continued to expand the range of difference between the price Lumia Windows Phone platform, new materials, new technologies and location-based services. This causes problems for the workers because of their need to understand new materials, new technologies and location-based services b) Operational changes and updated cost reduction target When nokia do Operational changes and updated cost reduction target the problem come out is was : 1. Reductions within certain research and development projects, resulting in the planned closure of its facilities in Ulm, Germany and Burnaby, Canada. a. By doing the reductions have resulting in the planned closure of its facilities in Ulm, Germany and Burnaby, Canada. 2. Consolidation of certain manufacturing operations, resulting in the planned closure of its manufacturing facility in Salo, Finland. Research and Development efforts in Salo to continue. a. ïÆ'  Have resulting in the planned closure of its manufacturing facility in Salo, Finland. 3. Focusing of marketing and sales activities, including prioritizing key markets a. ïÆ'  By focusing of marketing and sales activities have make the marketing department do to more plan to improve sales. 4. Streamlining of IT, corporate and support functions. a. ïÆ'  Employee in IT need to learn more about new software. 5. . a. ïÆ'  Assets of company reduce. c)Renewed leadership team Nokia have make changes to its senior leadership. The new leadership team, the changes made by Nokia would result in a change in leadership style. This certainly makes it difficult for workers to adapt to a new style of leadership. 3.1 c) The reasons changes implemented by the management. Changes in the organization is often done because : 1. More global competition 2. Declining economy 3. Faster technological change 4. Pressure to protect the environment 5. Customer expections changes( Want high quality product,low cost ,and friendly service) Conclusion Nokia has done a lot of changes in their organization because of the reasons above. 1) Because a lot of competition appear as samsung and apple. 2) Economic decline in poor management in the organization (culture of the organization) 3) Changes in smartphone technology. 4) The pressure to protect the environment need nokia to produce the right product. 5) The requirements of customers who require products quality need nokia products that satisfy the customers.

The Man, the Message, the Mission Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Link between Law, Democracy, and Governement Essay

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Professional Knowledge and Abilities Research Paper

Professional Knowledge and Abilities - Research Paper Example The association promotes professionalism in education through the provision of classroom mini-grants and scholarships designed specifically to help advance continuing education and student achievement. All members are eligible to apply for these grants and scholarships. Through the association newsletter, Education Matters, an easy-to-read and straight-to-the-point letter, members are updated with key issues in the education career. Indeed, featured articles with refreshing perspective in recent editions include â€Å"A Charter School Success Story in the Making†, â€Å"Reinventing Special Education†, Empowering Teachers to do Assessment† and â€Å"The Three Reasons We Must Teach History†. Furthermore, through the Individual Liability Insurance policy, the association guarantees $2,000,000 protection per occurrence, per member. In addition, the association’s Legal Protection benefits ensure that members have access to legal counsel at the onset of wo rkplace issues and Defense costs. The legal coverage takes care of legal action arising from out of duties.

International Human resources management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Library Financial Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Library Financial Management - Essay Example Budgeting can also be used in library as standards and measures for future performance. Budgets are basically of three types viz. line item budgeting, program budgeting and zero based budgeting. The budget type that is used by Anamerican college library is line item budget as it outlines various expenditures and resources of the library along with the various services that the library offers to its users. Dossett (2004) suggests that the line item budgeting is a type that is applied to almost every library setting. This type of budget classifies each sort of activity in a separate appearance. The program budget emphasises the services or programs that are provided by the library to its customers. Hence this budget allows a library to evaluate performance with respect to various programs that it offers. Seer (2000, p188) says that "the primary characteristic of a program budget is that all expenditures needed to provide that product or functions are grouped together". Zero based budgeting, on the other hand, maintains its focus on the future aspects and accomplishment of the goals of the organisation. "Zero-based budgeting ignores previous practice and insists that every budget fully proves its worth, not in respect of what happened in the past but solely in terms of current organisational objectives" (Heery, 1999, p60). The line item budget that this library uses appraises its performance by outlining all the expenditures and resources, while comparing it to that of the previous year. Seer (2000, p188) says that "a line item budget reflects input (what you are spending) not output (what your organization is getting for the money), resources not results". As Anamerican library uses line item budget to plan its various expenditures and evaluate the available funding and resources, the budget also sheds light on several aspects of information services and roles it performs. As indicated in the budget, the library provides various services such as referencing, circulation, and cataloguing to its users. The budget also shows various expenditures borne by the library towards employees' salaries and benefits along with its information resources such as books, periodicals/serials, electronic reference materials, microforms etc. and other assets, which include computers for different uses. The referencing service of the library appears to be at the stronger side, with the library staff providing referencing and information services to the customers both on the usage of printed as well as online resources. These reference librarians also provide training and education to the users with regard to effective usage of all the materials available in the library. This is very important in when electronic resources constitute an eminent part of information as well as the library sources. According to Gessesse (1997, p92), "the fact that many library users will not have direct access to equipment or the knowledge levels to use effectively the online environment, requires that librarians continue to be sophisticated translators of patrons' needs". Interaction with users also allows reference

Business Models and Planning Chapter Questions Assignment - 5

Business Models and Planning Chapter Questions - Assignment Example The leading indicators consist of measures of economic activities where shifts attempt predicting onset of a cycle. This group employs approximately 10 distinguishing indicators. They include orders made by consumers to the manufacturers, index performance of vendors, manufacturer’s orders for nondefense goods, building permits issued in a period, average working weeks, interest rates in treasury bonds, and average initial claims among others. b. Coincidental indicators- these constitute a collection of processes of business events that fluctuate in the business process. Hey /play an important role in shaping the business cycle as compared to the rest. Their movement is directly proportional to movement of the economy. Four categories are included in coincidental indicators. They include: the number of people employed in nonagricultural businesses, industrial production, individual incomes, and manufacturing and trade sales. c. Lagging indicators- Just as the name suggests, lagging indicators show the phases in the cycle after business events. Normally, they are visible after six to twelve months of a business event. Close to seven measures are used as lagging indicators in business. They include: consumer’s price indices, outstanding commercial or industrial debts, unit cost in manufacturing, ‘fractions of consumers’ credits, and mean durations of unemployment and ratio of inventories to sales. A business model in this context will describe the justification of how a business forms, delivers, and takes note of values in an economic setup. The models in this scenario are a way of the business attaining the aims and objectives. The business models become representations when they are used for a number of events in formal or non-formal setups. The models are used for representations of business strategies, infrastructure, trade events, and given operational processes To develop a full business model that develops to a

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF SMALL BOWEL OBSTRUCTION AND NURSING INTERVENTIONS Essay

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Give Five Difference on Quality Assurance and Quality Control Essay Example for Free

Give Five Difference on Quality Assurance and Quality Control Essay Quality Assurance (Qa) Qa Is Process that is use to Create  amp; enforce standard amp; guideline to improve the Quality of  Soiftware Process amp; Prevent Bug from the Application Quality assuranceis a process in which all the roles are  guided and moniteered to accomplish their tasks right from  the starting of the process till the end Quality Assurance:- customer satisfication by providing value for their money by always supplying quality product as per customer specification and delivery requirement. Quality Control: QC is evaluating the product,identifying the defects and suggesting improvements for the same. It is oriented towards Detection eg:Testing. Quality Control is a system of routine technical activites,   to measure and control the quality of the inventory as it   is being developed. Quality Control includes general methods such as accuracy  checks on data acquisition and calculation and the use of  approved standardised procedure for emission calculations,   measurements, estimating uncertainites, archiving  informations and reporting. Quality Control (QC)Qc is a process that is use to Find Bug  From The Product , as early as possible amp; make sure they  get Fixed   Quality control is a process in which sudden checkings are  conducted on the roles   Quality Control :- QC is evaluating the product,identifying the defects and suggesting improvements for the same. It is oriented towards Detection eg:Testing. What are 8 principles of total quality management and key benefits the eight principles of TQM: 1. quality can and must be manage 2. everyone has a customer to delight 3. processes, not the people, are the problem 4. very employee is responsible for quality 5. problems must be prevented, not just fixed 6. quality must be measured so it can be controlled 7. quality improvements must be continuos 8. quality goals must be base on customer requirements. The concept of TQM (Total Quality Management) Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the 1950s and has steadily become more po pular since the early 1980s. Total Quality is a description of the culture, attitude and organization of a company that strives to provide customers with products and services that satisfy their needs. The culture requires quality in all aspects of the companys operations, with processes being done right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from operations. Total Quality Management, TQM, is a method by which management and employees can become involved in the continuous improvement of the production of goods and services. It is a combination of quality and management tools aimed at increasing business and reducing losses due to wasteful practices. Some of the companies who have implemented TQM include Ford Motor Company, Phillips Semiconductor, SGL Carbon, Motorola and Toyota Motor Company. TQM Defined TQM is a management philosophy that seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing, finance, design, engineering, and production, customer service, etc. ) to focus on meeting customer needs and organizational objectives. TQM views an organization as a collection of processes. It maintains that organizations must strive to continuously improve these processes by incorporating the knowledge and experiences of workers. The simple objective of TQM is Do the right things, right the first time, every time. TQM is infinitely variable and adaptable. Although originally applied to manufacturing operations, and for a number of years only used in that area, TQM is now becoming recognized as a generic management tool, just as applicable in service and public sector organizations. There are a number of evolutionary strands, with different sectors creating their own versions from the common ancestor. TQM is the foundation for activities, hich include: * Commitment by senior management and all employees * Meeting customer requirements * Reducing development cycle times * Just In Time/Demand Flow Manufacturing * Improvement teams Reducing product and service costs * Systems to facilitate improvement * Line Management ownership * Employee involvement and empowerment * Recognition and celebration * Challenging quantified goals and benchmarking * Focus on processes / improvement plans * Specific incorporation in strategic planning This shows that TQM must be practiced in all activities, by all personnel, in Manufacturing, Marketing, Engine ering, R;amp;D, Sales, Purchasing, HR, etc. The core of TQM is the customer-supplier interfaces, both externally and internally, and at each interface lie a number of processes. This core must be surrounded by commitment to quality, communication of the quality message, and recognition of the need to change the culture of the organization to create total quality. These are the foundations of TQM, and they are supported by the key management functions of people, processes and systems in the organization. Difference between Product Quality and Process Quality 1. Product quality means we concentrate always final quality but in case of process quality we set the process parameterProduct quality means we concentrate quality of product that is fit for intended use and as per customer requirement. In the case of process quality we control our rejection rate such that in-house rejection is at minimum level. | | 2. Product quality means we concentrate always final quality but in case of process quality we set the process parameter 3. Product quality is the quality of the final product made. While Process quality means the quality of every process involved in the manufacturing of the final product. 4. Product quality  is focusing on meeting tolerances in the end result of the manufacturing activities. The end result is measured on a standard of good enough. Process quality focuses on each activity and forces the activities to achieve  maximum tolerances  irrespective of the end result. Something like a paint can manufacturer, the can and the lid need to match. A product quality focus on whether the paint can and lid fit tight enough but not too tight. This focus would require cans to be inspected and a specific ratio of defective would be expected. Process quality, the can making activities would be evaluated on its ability to to make the can opening exactly 6. 000 inches. The lid making would be evaluated on its ability to make  lids  6. 10 inches. No cans would be defective if the distribution of output sizes is narrow enough. The goal of process quality is to force narrow variance in product output to be able to expect close tolerances. This focus on process quality typically generates higher product quality as a secondary outcome. 5. When we talk about software quality assurance, we often discuss process measurements, proces s improvements, productivity increase, quality improvement etc. And when we talk about quality improvement, mostly people think about product quality improvement. Most of the time people forget about process quality improvement. In fact, people find it difficult to differentiate between product quality and process quality. Let us find out the difference! During software development we have work products like requirement specifications, software design, software code, user documentation, etc. Quality of any of these work products can be done by measuring its attributes and finding of they are good enough. For instance, a requirement specification may be ambiguous or even wrong. In that case, quality of that requirement specification is bad. So during quality assurance audit (peer review, inspection etc. ), this defect can be caught so that it can be rectified. During software development project, a lot of processes are followed. The top processes are the project processes like project initiation, project planning, project monitoring, and project closure. Then we have development processes like  requirement development, software design, software coding, software testing and software release. All of these processes are not executed perfectly on any project. Improvement in these processes can be achieved if we have audits of these processes. For instance, these audits are done by using standards like CMM (Capability Maturity Model). These standards dictate as to how any project or development process needs to be executed on any project. If any process step is deviating too much from these standards then that process step needs to be improved. The most important job of any software quality assurance department is to audit and ensure that all processes on projects being executed in that organization adhere to these standards and so quality of these processes (project amp; development) is good enough. Effect of ISO on Society Society ISO standards help governments, civil society and the business world translate societal aspirations, such as for social responsibility, health, and safe food and water, into concrete realizations. In so doing, they support the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals. Social responsibility 1 November 2010 saw the publication of ISO 26000 which gives organizations guidance on social responsibility, with the objective of sustainability. The standard was eagerly awaited, as shown by the fact that a mere four months after its publication, a Google search resulted in nearly five million references to the standard. This indicates there is a global expectation for organizations in both public and private sectors to be responsible for their actions, to be transparent, and behave in an ethical manner. ISO 26000, developed with the engagement of experts from 99 countries, the majority from developing economies, and more than 40 international  organizations, will help move from good intentions about social responsibility to effective action. Health ISO offers more than 1 400 standards for facilitating and improving health-care. These are developed within 19 ISO technical committees addressing specific aspects of healthcare that bring together health practitioners and experts from government, industry and other stakeholder categories. Some of the topics addressed include health informatics, laboratory equipment and testing, medical devices and their evaluation, dentistry, sterilization of healthcare products, implants for surgery, biological evaluation, mechanical contraceptives, prosthetics and orthotics, quality management and protecting patient data. They provide benefits for researchers, manufacturers, regulators, health-care professionals, and, most important of all, for patients. The World Health Organization is a major stakeholder in this work, holding liaison status with 61 of ISO’s health-related technical committees (TCs) or subcommittees (SCs). Food There are some 1 000 ISO food-related standards benefitting producers and manufacturers,  regulators and testing laboratories, packaging and transport companies, merchants and retailers, and the end consumer. In recent years, there has been strong emphasis on standards to ensure safe food supply chains. At the end of 2010, five years after the publication of ISO 22000, the standard was being implemented by users in 138 countries. At least 18 630 certificates of conformity attesting that food safety management systems were being implemented according to the requirements of the standard, had been issued by the end of 2010, an increase of 34 % over the previous year. The level of inter-governmental interest in ISO’s food standards is shown by the fact that the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organizations has liaison status with 41 ISO TCs or SCs. Water The goals of safe water and improved sanitation are ingrained in the UN Millennium Development Goals. ISO is contributing through the development of standards for both drinking water and wastewater services and for water quality. Related areas addressed by ISO include irrigation systems and plastic piping through which water flows. In all, ISO has developed more than 550 water-related standards. A major partner in standards for water quality is the United Nations Environment Programme. The Waterfall Model was first Process Model to be introduced. It is also referred to as a  linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed fully before the next phase can begin. At the end of each phase, a review takes place to determine if the project is on the right path and whether or not to continue or discard the project. In waterfall model phases do not overlap. Diagram of Waterfall-model: Advantages of waterfall model: * Simple and easy to understand and use. * Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model – each phase has specific deliverables and a review process. Phases are processed and completed one at a time. * Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood. Disadvantages of waterfall model: * Once an application is in the  testing  stage, it is very difficult to go back and change something that was not well-thought out in the concept stage. * No working software is produced until late during the life cycle. * High amounts of risk and uncertainty. * Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects. * Poor model for long and ongoing projects. Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing. When to use the waterfall model: * Requirements are very well known, clear and fixed. * Product definition is stable. * Technology is understood. * There are no ambiguous requirements * Ample resources with required expertise are available freely * The project is short. The basic idea here is that instead of freezing the requirements before a design or coding can proceed, a throwaway prototype is built to understand the requirements. This prototype is developed based on the currently known requirements. By using this prototype, the client can get an â€Å"actual feel† of the system, since the interactions with prototype can enable the client to better understand the requirements of the desired system. Prototyping is an attractive idea for complicated and large systems for which there is no manual process or existing system to help determining the requirements. The prototype are usually not complete systems and many of the details are not built in the prototype. The goal is to provide a system with overall functionality. Diagram of Prototype model: Advantages of Prototype model: Users are actively involved in the development * Since in this methodology a working model of the system is provided, the users get a better understanding of the system being developed. * Errors can be detected much earlier. * Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions. * Missing functionality can be identified easily * Confusing or difficult functions can be identified Requirements validation, Quick implementation of, incomplete, but functional, application. Disadvantages of Prototype model: * Leads to implementing and then repairing way of building systems. Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as scope of the system may expand beyond original plans. * Incomplete application may cause application not to be used as the full system was designed Incomplete or inadequate problem analysis. When to use Prototype model: * Prototype model should be used when the desired system needs to have a lot of interaction with the end users. * Typically, online systems, web interfaces have a very high amount of interaction with end users, are best suited for Prototype model. It might take a while for a system to be built that allows ease of use and needs minimal training for the end user. * Prototyping ensures that the end users constantly work with the system and provide a feedback which is incorporated in the prototype to result in a useable system. They are excellent for designing good human computer interface systems. In incremental model the whole requirement is divided into various builds. Multiple development cycles take place here, making the life cycle aâ€Å"multi-waterfall† cycle. Cycles are divided up into smaller, more easily managed modules. Each module passes through the requirements, design, mplementation and  testingphases. A working version of software is produced during the first module, so you have working software early on during the  software life cycle. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the complete system is achieved. For example: In the diagram above when we work  incrementally  we are adding piece by piece but expect that each piece is fully finished. Thus keep on adding the pieces until it’s complete. Diagram of Incremental model: Advantages of Incremental model: * Generates working software quickly and early during the software life cycle. More flexible – less costly to change scope and requirements. * Easier to test and debug during a smaller iteration. * Customer can respond to each built. * Lowers initial delivery cost. * Easier to manage risk because risky pieces are identified and handled during it’d iteration. Disadvantages of Incremental model: * Needs good planning and design. * Needs a clear and complete definition of the whole system before it can be broken down and built incrementally. * Total cost is higher than  waterfall. When to use the Incremental model: * Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood. Major requirements must be defined; however, some detail s can evolve with time. * There is a need to get a product to the market early. * A new technology is being used * Resources with needed skill set are not available * There are some high risk features and goals. Difference between spiral model and incremental model Incremental Development Incremental Development is a practice where the system functionalities are sliced into increments (small portions). In each increment, a vertical slice of functionality is delivered by going through all the activities of the software development process, from the requirements to the deployment. Incremental Development (adding) is often used together with Iterative Development (redo) in software development. This is referred to as Iterative and Incremental Development (IID). Spiral model The Spiral Model is another IID approach that has been formalized by Barry Boehm in the mid-1980s as an extension of the Waterfall to better support iterative development and puts a special emphasis on risk management (through iterative risk analysis). 4 Reasons to Use Fishbone Diagrams The fishbone diagram, or the cause and effect diagram, is a simple graphic display that shows all the possible causes of a problem in a business process. It is also called the Ishakawa diagram. Fishbone diagrams are useful due to how they portray information. There are 4 Main Reasons to use a Fishbone Diagram: 1. Display relationships   The fishbone diagram captures the associations and relationships among the potential causes and effects displayed in the diagram. These relationships can be easily understood. 2. Show all causes simultaneously   Any cause or causal chain featured on the fishbone diagram could be contributing to the problem. The fishbone diagram illustrates each and every possible cause in an easily comprehendible way; this makes it a great tool for presenting the problem to stakeholders. 3. Facilitate brainstorming   The fishbone diagram is a great way to stimulate and structure brainstorming about the causes of the problem because it captures all the causes. Seeing the fishbone diagram may stimulate your team to explore possible solutions to the problems. 4. Help maintain team focus   The fishbone framework can keep your team focused as you discuss what data needs to be gathered. It helps ensure that everyone is collecting information in the most efficient and useful way, and that nobody is wasting energy chasing nonexistent problems. Agile software development is a group of software development methods based on iterative and incremental development, where requirements and solutions evolve through collaboration between self-organizing, cross-functional teams. It promotes adaptive planning, evolutionary development and delivery, a time-boxed iterative approach, and encourages rapid and flexible response to change. It is a conceptual framework that promotes foreseen interactions throughout the development cycle. Rapid application development (RAD) is a software development methodology that uses minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping. The planning of software developed using RAD is interleaved with writing the software itself. The lack of extensive pre-planning generally allows software to be written much faster, and makes it easier to change requirements. Code and fix Code and fix development is not so much a deliberate strategy as an artifact of naivete and schedule pressure on software developers. [5] Without much of a design in the way, programmers immediately begin producing code. At some point, testing begins (often late in the development cycle), and the inevitable bugs must then be fixed before the product can be shipped. See also: Continuous integration and Cowboy coding What Are the Benefits of Pareto Analysis? A Pareto analysis is an observation of causes of problems that occur in either an organization or daily life, which is then displayed in a histogram. A histogram is a chart that prioritizes the causes of problems from the greatest to the least severe. The Pareto analysis is based on the Pareto Principle, also known as the 80/20 rule, which states that 20 percent of effort yields 80 percent of results. For example, if an individual sells items on eBay, he should focus on 20 percent of the items that yield 80 percent of sales. According to Mindtools. com, a Pareto analysis enables individuals to make effective changes. Organizational Efficiency * A Pareto analysis requires that individuals list changes that are needed or organizational problems. Once the changes or problems are listed, they are ranked in order from the biggest to the least severe. The problems ranked highest in severity should become the main focus for problem resolution or improvement. Focusing on problems, causes and problem resolution contributes to organizational efficiency. Companies operate efficiently when employees identify the root causes of problems and spend time resolving the biggest problems to yield the greatest organizational benefit. Enhanced Problem-Solving Skills * You can improve your problem-solving skills when you conduct a Pareto analysis, because it enables you to organize work-related problems into cohesive facts. Once youve clearly outlined these facts, you can begin the planning necessary to solve the problems. Members of a group can conduct a Pareto analysis together. Arriving at a group consensus about the issues that require change fosters organizational learning and increases group cohesiveness. * Improved Decision Making * Individuals who conduct a Pareto analysis can measure and compare the impact of changes that take place in an organization. With a focus on resolving problems, the procedures and processes required to make the changes should be documented during a Pareto analysis. This documentation will enable better preparation and improvements in decision making for future changes. BENEFITS OF CONTROL CHARTS 1. Help you recognize and understand variability and how to control it 2. Identify â€Å"special causes† of variation and changes in performance 3. Keep you from fixing a process that is varying randomly within control limits; that is, no â€Å"special causes† are present. If you want to improve it, you have to objectively identify and eliminate the root causes of the process variation 4. Assist in the diagnosis of process problems 5. Determine if process improvement effects are having the desired affects 1st party audit First Party The first party audit is an audit carried out by a company on itself to etermine whether its systems and procedures are consistently improving products and services, and as a means to evaluate conformity with the procedures and the standard. Each second and third party audit should consider the first party audits carried out by the company in question. Ultimately, the only systems that should need to be examined are those of internal audits and reviews. In fact, the second or third parties themselves have to carry out internal or first party audits to ensure their own systems and procedures are meeting business objectives. SECOND PARTY (EXTERNAL) AUDIT Unlike the first party audit, a second party audit is an audit of another organization’s quality program not under the direct control or within the organizational structure of the auditing organization. Second party audits are usually performed by the customer upon its suppliers (or potential suppliers) to ascertain whether or not the supplier can meet existing or proposed contractual requirements. Obviously, the supplier’s quality system is a very important part of contractual requirements since it is directly (manufacturing, engineering, purchasing, quality control, etc. and indirectly (marketing, inside and outside sales, etc. ) responsible for the design, production, control and continued supportability of the product. Although second party audits are usually conducted by customers on their suppliers, it is sometimes beneficial for the customer to contract with an independent quality auditor. This action helps to promote an image of fairness and objectivity on the p art of the customer. THIRD PARTY AUDIT Compared to first and second party audits where auditors are not independent, the third party audit is objective. It is an assessment of an organization’s quality system conducted by an independent, outside auditor or team of auditors. When referring to a third party audit as it applies to an international quality standard such as ISO 9000, the term third party is synonymous with a quality system registrar whose primary responsibility is to assess an organization’s quality system for conformance to that standard and issue a certificate of conformance (upon completion of a successful assessment). Application of IT in supplying Point of sale  (POS) or  checkout  is the place where a retail transaction is completed. It is the point at which a customer makes a payment to a merchant in exchange for goods or services. At the point of sale the merchant would use any of a range of possible methods to calculate the amount owing, such as a manual system, weighing machines, scanners or an electronic cash register. The merchant will usually provide hardware and options for use by the customer to make payment, such as an EFTPOS terminal. The merchant will also normally issue a receipt for the transaction. Functions of IT in marketing Pricing Pricing plays an important role in determining market success and profitability. If you market products that have many competitors, you may face strong price competition. In that situation, you must aim to be the lowest-cost supplier so you can set low prices and still remain profitable. You can overcome low price competition by differentiating your product and offering customers benefits and value that competitors cannot match. Promotion Promotion makes customers and prospects aware of your products and your company. Using promotional techniques, such as advertising, direct marketing, telemarketing or public relations, you can communicate product benefits and build preference for your company’s products. Selling Marketing and selling are complementary functions. Marketing creates awareness and builds preference for a product, helping company sales representatives or retail sales staff sell more of a product. Marketing also supports sales by generating leads for the sales team to follow up. Market segmentation Market segmentation is a marketing strategy that involves dividing a broad target market into subsets of consumers who have common needs, and then designing and implementing strategies to target their needs and desires using media channels and other touch-points that best allow to reach them. Types of segmentation Clickstream behaviour A clickstream is the recording of the parts of the screen a computer user clicks on while web browsing or using another software application. As the user clicks anywhere in the webpage or application, the action is logged on a client or inside the web server, as well as possibly the web browser, router, proxy server or ad server. Clickstream analysis is useful for web activity analysis, software testing, market research, and for analyzing employee productivity. Target marketing A target market is a group of customers that the business has decided to aim its marketing efforts and ultimately its merchandise towards. A well-defined target market is the first element to a marketing strategy. The marketing mix variables of product, place (distribution), promotion and price are the four elements of a marketing mix strategy that determine the success of a product in the marketplace. Function of IT in supply chain Making sure the right products are in-store for shoppers as and when they want them is key to customer loyalty. It sounds simple enough, yet why do so many retailers still get it wrong. Demand planning Demand Planning is the art and science of planning customer demand to drive holistic execution of such demand by corporate supply chain and business management. Demand forecasting Demand forecasting is the activity of estimating the quantity of a product or service that consumers will purchase. Demand forecasting involves techniques including both informal methods, such as educated guesses, and quantitative methods, such as the use of historical sales data or current data from test markets. Demand forecasting may be used in making pricing decisions, in assessing future capacity requirements, or in making decisions on whether to enter a new market. Just in time inventory Just in time  (JIT) is a production strategy that strives to improve a business  return on investment  by reducing in-process  inventory  and associated  carrying costs. Continuous Replenishment Continuous Replenishment is a process by which a supplier is notified daily of actual sales or warehouse shipments and commits to replenishing these sales (by size, color, and so on) without stock outs and without receiving replenishment orders. The result is a lowering of associated costs and an improvement in inventory turnover. Supply chain sustainability Supply chain sustainability is a business issue affecting an organization’s supply chain or logistics network in terms of environmental, risk, and waste costs. Sustainability in the supply chain is increasingly seen among high-level executives as essential to delivering long-term profitability and has replaced monetary cost, value, and speed as the dominant topic of discussion among purchasing and supply professionals. Software testing Difference between defect, error, bug, failure and fault: â€Å"A mistake in coding is called error ,error found by tester is called defect,   defect accepted by development team then it is called bug ,build does not meet the requirements then it Is failure. † Error:  A discrepancy between a computed, observed, or measured value or condition and the true, specified, or theoretically correct value or condition. This can be a misunderstanding of the internal state of the software, an oversight in terms of memory management, confusion about the proper way to calculate a value, etc. Failure:  The inability of a system or component to perform its required functions within specified performance requirements. See: bug, crash, exception, and fault. Bug: A fault in a program which causes the program to perform in an unintended or unanticipated manner. See: anomaly, defect, error, exception, and fault. Bug is terminology of Tester. Fault:  An incorrect step, process, or data definition in a computer program which causes the program to perform in an unintended or unanticipated manner. See: bug, defect, error, exception. Defect: Commonly refers to several troubles with the software products, with its external behaviour or with its internal features. Regression testing Regression testing is any type of software testing that seeks to uncover new software bugs, or regressions, in existing functional and non-functional areas of a system after changes, such as enhancements, patches or configuration changes, have been made to them. Verification and Validation example is also given just below to this table. Verification|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Validation| 1. Verification is a static practice of verifying documents, design, code and program. 1. Validation is a dynamic mechanism of validating and testing the actual product. | 2. It does not involve executing the code. | 2. It always involves executing the code. | 3. It is human based checking of documents and files. | 3. It is computer based execution of program. | 4. Verification uses methods like inspections, reviews, walkthroug hs, and Desk-checking etc. | 4. Validation uses methods like black box (functional)   testing, gray box testing, and white box (structural) testing etc. | 5. Verification  is to check whether the software conforms to specifications. | 5. Validation  is to check whether software meets the customer expectations and requirements. | 6. It can catch errors that validation cannot catch. It is low level exercise. | 6. It can catch errors that verification cannot catch. It is High Level Exercise. | 7. Target is requirements specification, application and software architecture, high level, complete design, and database design etc. | 7. Target is actual product-a unit, a module, a bent of integrated modules, and effective final product. | 8. Verification is done by QA team to ensure that the software is as per the specifications in the SRS document. 8. Validation is carried out with the involvement of testing team. | 9. It generally comes first-done before validation. | 9. It generally follows after verification. | Differences Between Black Box Testing and White Box Testing Criteria| Black Box Testing| White Box Testing| Definition| Black Box Testing is a software testing method in which the internal structure/ design/ imple mentation of the item being tested is NOT known to the tester| White Box Testing is a software testing method in which the internal structure/ design/ implementation of the item being tested is known to the tester. Levels Applicable To| Mainly applicable to higher levels of testing: Acceptance TestingSystem Testing| Mainly applicable to lower levels of testing: Unit TestingIntegration Testing| Responsibility| Generally, independent Software Testers| Generally, Software Developers| Programming Knowledge| Not Required| Required| Implementation Knowledge| Not Required| Required| Basis for Test Cases| Requirement Specifications| Detail Design| A programmer, computer programmer, developer, coder, or software engineer is a person who writes computer software. A quality assurance officer implements strategic plans, supervises quality assurance personnel and is responsible for budgets and allocating resources for a quality assurance division or branch. Levels of testing In  computer programming,  unit testing  is a method by which individual units of  source code, sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures, are tested to determine if they are fit for use. Intuitively, one can view a unit as the smallest testable part of an application. Integration testing (sometimes called Integration and Testing, abbreviated Iamp;T) is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. System testing of software or hardware is testing conducted on a complete, integrated system to evaluate the systems compliance with its specified requirements. System testing falls within the scope of black box testing, and as such, should require no knowledge of the inner design of the code or logic. In engineering and its various sub disciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests. In systems engineering it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery. Software developers often distinguish acceptance testing by the system provider from acceptance testing by the customer (the user or client) prior to accepting transfer of ownership. In the case of software, acceptance testing performed by the customer is known as user acceptance testing (UAT), end-user testing, site (acceptance) testing, or field (acceptance) testing. A sample testing cycle Although variations exist between organizations, there is a typical cycle for testing. The sample below is common among organizations employing the Waterfall development model. Requirements analysis: Testing should begin in the requirements phase of the software development life cycle. During the design phase, testers work with developers in determining what aspects of a design are testable and with what parameters those tests work. Test planning: Test strategy, test plan, testbed creation. Since many activities will be carried out during testing, a plan is needed. Test development: Test procedures, test scenarios, test cases, test datasets, test scripts to use in testing software. Test execution: Testers execute the software based on the plans and test documents then report any errors found to the development team. Test reporting: Once testing is completed, testers generate metrics and make final reports on their test effort and whether or not the software tested is ready for release. Test result analysis: Or Defect Analysis, is done by the development team usually along with the client, in order to decide what defects should be assigned, fixed, rejected (i. e. found software working properly) or deferred to be dealt with later. Defect Retesting: Once a defect has been dealt with by the development team, it is retested by the testing team. AKA Resolution testing. Regression testing: It is common to have a small test program built of a subset of tests, for each integration of new, modified, or fixed software, in order to ensure that the latest delivery has not ruined anything, and that the software product as a whole is still working correctly. Test Closure: Once the test meets the exit criteria, the activities such as capturing the key outputs, lessons learned, results, logs, documents related to the project are archived and used as a reference for future projects. Types of Performance testing Stress testing (sometimes called torture testing) is a form of deliberately intense or thorough testing used to determine the stability of a given system or entity. Usability testing is a technique used in user-centered interaction design to evaluate a product by testing it on users. Volume testing refers to testing a software application with a certain amount of data. This amount can, in generic terms, be the database size or it could also be the size of an interface file that is the subject of volume testing. Maintenance testing is a test that is performed to either identify equipment problems, diagnose equipment problems or to confirm that repair measures have been effective. When it comes to quality management, IT organisations can take a leaf out of industry’s book. Thanks to the success of companies like Toyota and Motorola, methods such as Total Quality Management (TQM) and Six Sigma are gaining rapid popularity. And with good reason. Quality is a good generator of money, and lots of it. Unlike industry, IT has no physical chain. This makes it more difficult at first to be able to take concrete steps towards the implementation of quality management. But the parallels are easily drawn. Regard a satisfied end user as the equivalent of a faultless end product, a carefully conceived system of applications as the equivalent of a streamlined production line and so forth. And similar to industry, things can go wrong in any aspect. The faultless implementation of processes leads to significant savings (and not forgetting satisfied end users). What should you focus on to set up quality management for IT within your own organisation and subsequently make money? The service excellence strategy Organise a strategy of service excellence for the internal IT services, where the optimisation of service to end users receives top priority. After all, poor quality leads to high repair costs. Especially in IT. Resolving incidents costs money (direct costs). And the indirect costs, such as loss of productivity are, though often unobserved, several times these direct costs. Focus on management and service processes The focus within IT is often on the projects and the functionalities of the systems. But to ensure service excellence, the performance of management and service processes are equally important. If these processes are substandard, it could result in a lack of clarity, unnecessary waiting times and – in the worst case scenario – to malfunctions. A reassessment of processes is vital to prevent these discomforts and reduce relevant costs. Measure the effect of failure and errors The effect of failure and errors at the workplace is rarely measured. Organisations often have no idea how much these mistakes are costing them and what the consequences are for the service to their clients. The costs of incidents and malfunctions are easy to calculate by using a few simple rules of thumb. When you do this regularly, it will become clear for everyone where savings can be realised (read: how much money can be made). This will suddenly put the investments made towards achieving higher quality in an entirely new perspective. Use simple, service-oriented KPIs The moment you have insight into what causes the direct and indirect failure and error costs, it’s a small step to define a number of simple and service-oriented KPIs. These KPIs can form the guideline for measuring and improving service quality. Examples of such KPIs are: * The average number of incidents per employee; * The percentage of incidents resolved during the first contact with the helpdesk (the so-called ‘first-time right’ principle); * The percentage of incidents caused by incorrectly implemented changes. Implement a measurement methodology Improvements within a quality system happen on the basis of facts. The collection of facts takes place through measurements within the operational processes, on the basis of preselected metrics (e. . the number of complaints). The key performance indicators (KPIs) show whether a specific objective has been achieved, for example a desired decline in the number of complaints, expressed in percentages. Don’t overestimate the power of ITIL ITIL (IT Infrastructure Library) is a collection of best practices for the structuring of operational processes. Many companies have implemented IT IL in an effort to make their service more professional. ITIL lets you lay a good foundation to make the IT service more professional. But beware: it is no quality methodology. It might be good for defining IT processes, but offers no scope for actual improvement. So you will need a separate quality methodology in addition to ITIL. Most organisations require a drastic improvement in the quality of their IT services. Perhaps the realisation that this won’t be costing any money, but will instead generate it, offers the incentive needed to set to work earnestly on the issue. The end result means two birds with one stone: a service-oriented IT company that saves costs, and an IT company that truly supports the end users in carrying out their activities optimally. The Importance of Quality Improvement in Your Business Venture A career in the business industry requires you to be tough and flexible. Business is a difficult venture. You have to make your way through and outperform competitors. Businesses nowadays have also gone global. You have to compete with other business entities from the world over. Because of the tough competition in the business scenes, getting the attention and the trust of customers has become increasingly difficult. This is where quality improvement comes in. Quality plays a vital role in any business. Consumers want the best and want to pay the lowest possible price for products that are of the greatest quality. Moreover, quality is also one of the main components of being able to stay in the game despite the competition around you. Constant quality improvement is important in keeping you afloat. This has to do with eliminating or reducing the losses and waste in the production processes of any business. Quality improvement most often involves the analysis of the performance of your business, products, and services and finding ways to further improve them. There are certain techniques that can help you in achieving quality improvement. Knowing these steps can lead you to improved quality in your business. Benchmarking or comparing your company to the best or the top of the field will also be beneficial. You have to identify what makes an organization or company ‘the best’ and why the consumers want to purchase these products or services. Compare the quality and cost of their products with yours. Also include the processes that use to produce them. This can help you in looking for your own business factors that you have to improve upon for success. Setting up your own internal quality checks is important. You have to ensure that in ach step of making your product, you are meeting the standards of the industry and also providing your customers with the best products. This needs to be done with the least amount of waste and as few resources as possible. You need to be rigid about following the quality checks that your company has put forth. This will save you from having to deal with returned items and pr oducts. It also helps in guaranteeing the satisfaction of your customers. You need to assess your own production and your products. You need to know if these have passed the international standards on quality for the respective industry you do business in. Moreover, measure how your product is doing against others in the market. These are important in order to know what aspects you have to improve. You cannot afford to be forgiving when assessing. You need to be honest and blunt when gauging your own company. This will help you in finding needs for improvement. After assessing, you have to take the steps in making the necessary changes that will lead you to improvement. You may need to change your quality policy or do more research about your products and provide better features. You may also need to conduct training for your employees in order to update them with new methods in your processes. Quality improvement is not just a one-time process. It needs to be continued despite the success that a company or organization is appreciating. Competitors will always try their best to outwit you. And so, you have to continue on improving your products and services in order to offer more to your clients. This will not only lead you to more sales but also to a better reputation in the industry. Keep in mind that it is often more work to stay on top than to get to the top!